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Intheearlieststagesofman'sdevelopmenthehadnomoreneedofmoneythananimalshave.Hewascontentwithverysimpleformsofshelter,madehisownroughtoolsandweaponsandcouldprovidefoodandclothingforhimselfandhisfamilyfromnaturalmaterialsaroundhim.Ashebecamemorecivilized,however,hebegantowantbettershelter,moreefficienttoolsandweapons,andmorecomfortableandmorelastingclothingthancouldbeprovidedbyhisownneighborhoodorbytheworkofhisownunskilledhands.Forthesethingshehadtoturntotheskilledpeoplesuchassmiths,leatherworkersorcarpenters.Itwasthenthatthequestionofpaymentarose.
Atfirsthegotwhathewantedbyasimpleprocessofexchange.Thesmithwhohadnotthetimetolookafterlandorcattlewasgladtotakemeatorgrainfromthefarmerinexchangeforanaxeoraplough.Butasmoreandmoregoodswhichhadnofixedexchangevaluecameonthemarket,exchangebecametoocomplicatedtobesatisfactory.Anotherproblemarosewhenthosewhomadethingswantedtogetstocksofwoodorleather,oriron,buthadnothingtoofferinexchangeuntiltheirfinishedgoodswereready.Thusthedifficultiesofexchangeledbydegreestotheinventionofmoney.Insomecountrieseasilyhandledthingslikeseedsorshellsweregivenacertainvalueandthefarmer,insteadofpayingthesmithforanewaxebygivinghimsomemeatorgrain,gavehimsomanyshells.Ifthesmithhadanyshellsleftwhenhehadboughthisfood,hecouldgetstocksoftherawmaterialsofhistrade.Insomecountriesquitelargethingssuchascowsorcamelsorevenbigflatstoneswereusedfortrade.Later,piecesofmetal,bearingvaluesaccordingtotherarityofthemetalandthesizeofthepieces,orcoinswereused.Moneyasweknowithadarrived.
1.Exchangeofgoodsbecamedifficultbecause_________.
Amanbecamemorecivilized
Bsmithsbegantolookafterlandorcattleintheirsparetime
Cmoreandmoregoodswhichhadnofixedexchangealuescametothemarker
Dfarmershadn'tenoughgrainormeattoprovidefor
skilledworkers
2.Moneywasnotuseduntil_______.
Apaperwasinvented
Bpeoplepracticedasimpleprocessofexchange
CnothingcouldbeofferedinexchangeDtheexchangeofonethingforanotherbecametoocomplicated
3.Thebesttitleforthispassageis_____.
AWhatismoney
BWhataremoney'sfunctions.
CTheimportanceofmoney
DThebeginningofmoney
Don'twashthosefossils!
StandardmuseumpracticecanwashawayDNA.
1.Washing,brushingandvarnishingfossils—allstandardconservationtreatmentsusedbymanyfossilhuntersandmuseumcuratorsalike—vastlyreducesthechancesofrecoveringancientDNA.
2.Instead,excavatorsshouldbehandlingatleastsomeoftheirbountywithgloves,andfreezingsamplesastheyarefound,dirtandall,concludesapaperintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencestoday.
3.AlthoughmanypalaeontologistsknowanecdotallythatthisisthebestwaytouptheoddsofextractinggoodDNA,Eva-MariaGeigloftheJacquesMonodInstituteinParis,France,andhercolleagueshavenowshownjusthowimportantconservationpracticescanbe.Thisinformation,theysay,needstobehammeredhomeamongthepeoplewhoareactuallyoutinthefielddiggingupbones.
4.Geiglandhercolleagueslookedat3,200-year-oldfossilbonesbelongingtoasingleindividualofanextinctcattlespecies,calledanaurochs.ThefossilsweredugupatasiteinFranceattwodifferenttimes—eitherin1947,andstoredinamuseumcollection,orin2004,andconservedinsterileconditionsat-20oC.
5.Theteam'sattemptstoextractDNAfromthe1947bonesallfailed.Thenewlyexcavatedfossils,however,allyieldedDNA.
6.Becausetheboneshadbeenburiedforthesameamountoftime,andinthesameconditions,theconservationmethodhadtobetoblamesaysGeigl."AsmuchDNAwasdegradedinthese57yearsasinthe3,200yearsbefore,"shesays.
Washin,washout
7.Becausemanypalaeontologistsbasetheirworkontheshapeoffossilsalone,theirmethodsofconservationarenotdesignedtopreserveDNA,Geiglexplains.
8.Thebiggestproblemishowtheyarecleaned.Fossilsareoftenwashedtogetheron-siteinalargebath,whichcanallowwater—andcontaminantsintheformofcontemporaryDNA—topermeateintotheporousbones."NotonlyistheauthenticDNAgettingwashedout,butcontaminationisgettingwashedin,"saysGeigl.
9.MostancientDNAspecialistsknowthisalready,saysHendrikPoinar,anevolutionarygeneticistatMcMasterUniversityinOntario,Canada.Butthatdoesn'tmeanthatbestpracticehasbecomewidespreadamongthosewhoactuallyfindthefossils.
10.GettingholdoffossilsthathavebeenpreservedwiththeirDNAinmindreliesoncloserelationshipsbetweenlab-basedgeneticistsandtheexcavators,sayspalaeogeneticistSvantePbooftheMaxPlanckInstituteforEvolutionaryAnthropologyinLeipzig,Germany.Andthatonlyoccursinexceptionalcases,hesays.
11.Pbo'steam,whichhasbeensequencingNeanderthalDNA,continuallyfacestheseproblems."WhenyouwanttostudyancienthumanandNeanderthalremains,there'sabigissueofcontaminationwithcontemporaryhumanDNA,"hesays.
12.Thisdoesn'tmeanthatallmuseumspecimensarefatallyflawed,notesPbo.TheNeanderthalfossilsthatwererecentlysequencedinhisownlab,forexample,hadbeenpartofamuseumcollectiontreatedinthetraditionalway.ButPboiskeentoseesamplesoffossilsfromeverymajorfindpreservedinlinewithGeigl'srecommendations—justincase.
Warmandwet
13.Geiglherselfbelievesthat,withcooperationbetweenbenchandfieldresearchers,preservingfossilsproperlycouldopenupavenuesofdiscoverythathavelongbeenassumedclosed.
14.Muchhumanculturaldevelopmenttookplaceintemperateregions.DNAdoesnotsurvivewellinwarmenvironmentsinthefirstplace,andcanvanishwhenfossilsarewashedandtreated.Forthisreason,Geiglsays,mostancientDNAstudieshavebeendoneonpermafrostsamples,suchasthewoollymammoth,oronremainsshelteredfromtheelementsincoldcaves—includingcavebearandNeanderthalfossils.
15.Betterconservationmethods,andafocusonfreshfossils,couldboostDNAextractionfrommoredelicatespecimens,saysGeigl.Andthatcouldshedmorelightonthestoryofhumanevolution.
(640wordsnature)
Glossary
Palaeontologists古生物學家
Aurochs歐洲野牛
Neanderthal(人類學)尼安德特人，舊石器時代的古人類。
Permafrost(地理)永凍層
Questions1-6
AnswerthefollowingquestionsbyusingNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSforeachanswer.
1.Howdidpeopletraditionallytreatfossils?
2.WhatsuggestionsdoGeiglandhercolleaguesgiveonwhatshouldbedonewhenfossilsarefound?
3.Whatproblemsmaybeposediffossilbonesarewashedon-site?NameONE.
4.WhatcharacteristicdofossilboneshavetomakethemsusceptibletobecontaminatedwithcontemporaryDNAwhentheyarewashed?
5.Whatcouldbebetterunderstoodwhenconservationtreatmentsareimproved?
6.Thepassagementionedseveralanimalspeciesstudiedbyresearchers.Howmanyofthemarementioned?
Questions7-11
Dothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninthepassage?PleasewriteTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththewriterFALSEifthestatementdoesnotagreewiththewriterNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationaboutthisinthepassage.
7.IntheirpaperpublishedintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences，GeiglandhercolleagueshaveshownwhatconservationpracticesshouldbefollowedtopreserveancientDNA.
8.ThefossilbonesthatGeiglandhercolleaguesstudiedareallfromthesameaurochs.
9.Geneticistsdon'thavetoworkonsite.
10.OnlynewlyexcavatedfossilbonesusingnewconservationmethodssuggestedbyGeiglandhercolleaguescontainancientDNA.
11.Paaboisstillworriedaboutthepotentialproblemscausedbytreatmentsoffossilsintraditionalway.
Questions12-13
CompletethefollowingthestatementsbychoosingletterA-Dforeachanswer.
12.“Thisinformation”inparagraph3indicates:
[A]ItiscriticaltofollowproperpracticesinpreservingancientDNA.
[B]ThebestwayofgettinggoodDNAistohandlefossilswithgloves.
[C]Fossilhuntersshouldwearhome-madehammerswhilediggingupbones.
[D]Manypalaeontologistsknowhowoneshoulddointreatingfossils.
13.ThestudyconductedbyGeiglandhercolleaguessuggests:
[A]thefactthatancientDNAcannotberecoveredfromfossilbonesexcavatedinthepast.
[B]thecorrelationbetweentheamountofburyingtimeandthatoftherecoveredDNA.
[C]thepaceatwhichDNAdegrades.
[D]thecorrelationbetweenconservationpracticesanddegradationofDNA.
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